Book Review :(English text of Alina Patru Review of The Covenant...

Revista Teologica 1/2011
 Tiberiu Weisz, The Covenant and the Mandate of Heaven. An In-Depth Comparative Cultural Study of Judaism and China [Legământul şi Mandatul cerului. O analiză comparativă de profunzimi a iudaismului şi a Chinei], Ed. iUniverse, New York, 2008, 243 p., ISBN 978-0-595-44450-2.

Reviewed by Dr. Alina Patru, University Lecturer .
Translated from Romanian.

Tiberiu Weisz is a Romanian born Jewish author and a trained Sinologue. His scientific orientation led him to the connection between Jews and China, a topic that was published in 2006, his work “The Kaifeng Stone Inscriptions” a reference work that established him as a specialist researcher. This work has similar orientation, continues to compare the principal tenets of Judaism and Chinese culture by not only juxtaposing primary sources of the sacred texts of both cultures but also by merging historical sources and critical data with more recent and updated material. There were studies that reflected on the similarities and differences of some cultures that had survived uninterrupted until today. But Tiberiu Weisz was the first to provide a comprehensive and fundamental comparison based on primary sources and on 10 years of difficult research of both cultures. The author is credited with knowing Judaism from the inside out and at the same time he is very familiar with the Chinese culture understanding its subtleties almost as a native. As he tells in the Introduction: “My goal is to treat readers to a unique way of looking at China and Judaism, from inside out as experienced by those within the culture” (pg. xviii). Moreover, Tiberiu Weisz went further to propose an idea that of the origin of these two cultures derived from one (theological) source “On a personal level, writing this book constantly challenged me with implied link between these two cultures. I could not look at Judaism from purely Jewish point of view, nor could I look at Chinese belief from a purely Chinese point of view. Somewhere and sometime in the distant past, these two cultures emanated from one source” (pg. xvii) The result of the comparative approach is a synthetic work that focuses on several central elements of the two religions and cultures. To attain this, he examines the sources in great depth, discovers the less obvious clues of evidence and establishes realistic connections at this level of understanding. Utilizing good skills of linguistic tools, Tiberiu Weisz retranslates, where necessary, the terms in English or he chooses the most appropriate interpretations in secondary literature that is most suitable to the [textual] meaning of the primary sources. The book follows an approximate timeline treating the topics in same order as the religion evolved. First, topics of general content are addressed: The formation of the Divinities, the Covenant and the Mandate of Heaven and the Divine connection. Then it is categorized according to topics in this order, external challenges posed by other religions, the golden age of rationalism, rise of mysticism, reformers and the reformation, the challenges of modern times and finally the establishment of Statehood [Israel and China]. Apart from the obvious parallels that could have been simply established by any researcher (Elohim- Shangdi; Covenant–Mandate of Heaven; Torah- Liji), Weisz launches a revolutionary theory such as, for example, that Laozi (604-531 BCE ), the founder of Daoism, on his journey to the West on the Silk Road, came in contact with biblical ideas, especially with tales about Israel in time of King Solomon. Weisz is the first who claims that certain ideas from Daodejing, the source of Daoism, attributed traditionally to Laozi and considered to be originated in China, were in fact borrowed from biblical stories in the Proverbs of Solomon: “a small country with few people, who lives in peace and prosperity” (Daodejing, # 80) that emulated the conditions during reign in the Kingdom of Solomon (pg. 13). DAO, the One, in the way in which it is described in Daodejing, is superimposed over Elohim, and overrides any other concepts especially when its attributes are divine features. Weisz strengthens his theory by pinpointing quotes in the Daodejing found in biblical literature. There are several, and identifying them is indeed amazing. It remains to be seen to what extent [his] theory wins followers and will be accepted by the international scientific world. We choose an example of Weisz interpretation from an unexpected topic in recent history, namely that of Hong Xiuquan (1814-1864), the charismatic leader of of the Taiping Rebellion (1851-1864) who self appointed his younger brother as Jesus Christ, and examined in the spirit of Jewish messianic movement. Hong fought to implement God’s plan in this world, which, as far as Chinese were concerned, was to overthrow the foreign Qing Dynasty and restore a native Chinese kingdom in the old capital city of Nanjing. Among the texts sacred that Hong used to legitimate his claims, was a very rudimentary translation of a Christian Bible into Chinese. Tiberiu Weisz, however, is of the opinion that the concepts that Hong actually promulgated -the Ten Commandments, monotheism, messianic - were closer to Judaism than to Christianity (pg. 148). The biblical texts quoted by Hong Xiuquan were from the prophecies of Isaiah in the Old Testament and Weisz wondered whether it could be possible that Hong has confused Isaiah with Jesus Christ. The Jewish messianic element of Hong is reinforced by a new argument that there is an undeniable connection between the two cultures. The comparative study of Weisz is an integral part of the entire process of the book. Based on the Chinese terminology, he suggests that Judaism could be considered the Yang to complement the Chinese Yin. Judaism is one of the essential pillars of Western civilization, able to adjust in the past and in the present to social changes while Chinese civilization, remains isolated, still misunderstood, preferring withdrawal, and integration with nature... “The interpretations of Weisz contain very interesting reflections and a high degree of originality and are aimed towards the intellectual world. We have to wait for the appearance of other specialists in these two fields [China and Judaism] with similar erudition for such a profound analysis. The precise academic value of Tiberiu Weisz’ works can be evaluated only after more interpreters with similar background will be available. The uncontested value of this works leads the way and I am convinced that it will take a long time to search for such a specialist from this milestone. A shortcoming of the book is the lack of conclusion or summaries at the end of each chapter as well as at the end of the book. This would have helped readers to digest the vast amount of information. For the Romanian public, this work presents a pleasant reading that not only enriches and opens new opportunities to understand these two of important cultures in the history of humanity, but also to know how one can to achieve better intercultural communication through comparative study.

Book Review- Kaifeng Haggadah

The Haggadah of the Kaifeng Jews of China by Fook-Kong Wong, Dalia Yasharpour Brill 2011, Hardcover 216 pages, EUR 99-/US $135

Reviewed by Tiberiu Weisz 
Published Sephardic Horizons Vol. 4 No 3. Summer 2014

 The Haggadah of the Kaifeng Jews of China (herein Haggadah) by Fook-Kong Wong, an Associate Professor at Hong Kong Theological Seminary and Dalia Yasharpour, an Instructor of Persian language and literature at Harvard is a scholarly study of the Hebrew Haggadah of the Kaifeng Jews. The book is divided into five chapters. In addition, the book contains a short introduction, the reproduction of the Haggadah Hebrew text with extensive annotations, the English translation and the Plates. The first five chapters would be of interest to the general reader and scholars alike, while the reproductions of the manuscripts would more likely be of interest to scholars and researchers. The methodology followed a logical pattern. The authors stated their objective “to analyze all the languages …and to gain an understanding of the Kaifeng Jews’ liturgy as represented in their Passover Haggada” (pg 5), followed by the body of the evidence. Often included were the authors’ own observations, and each chapter ended with a short conclusion. The authors scrutinized every page, every sentence and every letter of the Haggadah; they analyzed the handwriting pinpointing similarities and differences in styles. They went over the vocalization and showed “that they were produced locally rather than brought over from abroad” (pg 11). Another valuable inclusion was the side-by-side table of Hebrew words from the three manuscripts for comparison (pg. 13-16). There are some inconsistencies and assumptions that the authors left unexplained. For example, the authors quoted from Gabriel Brotier that the Chinese scribers wrote with “sharpened bamboo like quill pens…” (pg 8). Later on the authors quoted Israel Lehman, the Curator of manuscripts of the Klau Library, Hebrew Union College that “both [manuscripts] appear to have been written with Chinese ink brush” (pg18). The authors provided no explanation to this inconsistency. In another chapter the authors discussed at some length the “degree of Hebrew knowledge in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries” of the Kaifeng Jews (pg 25). The authors quoted a letter from Father Domenage who wrote in 1724 that “the Community had lost its tu-ching-pen” guide for studying the Bible. As a result no one applied himself to the study of the Hebrew Bible by this time” (pg 30), and in the conclusion of the chapter the authors wrote “ They had in possession a tu-ching-pen to assist them in reading the Bible” (pg 32). Again the inconsistency was not explained. The authors made the assumption that: “Apparently, they [Israelites] were traders because they mentioned that they came bearing western clothing” (pg 3). They paraphrased the original statement leaving out the word “tribute” without any further explanation. Scholars will also wonder why the latest research and literature of the religious practices (including the Haggadah) of the Kaifeng Jews, were not included in the bibliography? On the positive side, such inconsistencies and assumptions did not detract from the value of this work. The authors accomplished a monumental task: they reconstructed a fragmented Hebrew text, clarified the misspelled Hebrew words, and explained the Chinese side notes, translated the text into English, and finally they determined the origin of the liturgy of the Haggadah and the manuscripts. They concluded that the “archaic feature of the [Hebrew] language” pointed to a Passover liturgy of the Kaifeng community that originated in the Persian Passover rite (pg 63), and “the lack of additional songs in the Haggadah is once again consistent with the supposition that the source of the Haggadah is an early Babylonian tradition” (pg. 75). The authors achieved their goal. To their credit, Wong and Yasharpour showed that the Kaifeng Haggadah was an important primary source of Hebraic literature cherished by the Kaifeng Jews and the authors elevated an old Hebrew manuscript to an invaluable primary source for future studies. Tiberiu Weisz, has a Master Degree in Chinese and is a scholar of China and Judaism; He is the author of two books: The Kaifeng Stone Inscriptions (2006) and The Covenant and the Mandate of Heaven (2008). His articles are published in several countries. He taught Classical and Modern Chinese, and is translator from Chinese. http://www.sephardichorizons.org/Volume4/Issue4/Weisz

Israelite Migration to China/Han Dynasty

Borderland Administration

(This is an account of the migration and sinocization of the tribes in the Western Region including the Israelite community from Ferghana (Afghanistan today) to China in the Han Dynasty (206 BCE- 220 CE). I translated this section from the book:  Ma Dazheng, Chief Editor: A History of China Administration Of Borderland from the series of  A Complete History of China Borders. China 2000).

Translated from Chinese by Tiberiu Weisz

How and why did the Israelites move to China? First they lived in Ferghana peacefully for several generations, and they had little incentives to move. Only when the conditions in Central Asia became more difficult and China offered protection to the settlers, including the Israelites, that were unprecedented in history, they had good incentives to move.  China encouraged the various tribes to move closer to the Chinese borders to serve as a buffer zone between China and the barbarians. What was unprecedented was that the Chinese welcomed these settlers and offered them equal status to a Chinese. But before they could enjoy that status, there was a process of sinociztion that took place in the borderland areas.

Borderland administration of the Western Regions was a major accomplishment of successive Chinese emperors.  The Western Region as the Chinese called it, stretched from the Eastern edge of the Taklimakan Desert (Dunhuang today) to Fergana (Afghanistan today) an area roughly 800 miles long.  This region was famous for the Silk Route that connected the Roman Empire with China, where trade flowed from the earliest times until the decline of the land trade route in the second century CE.

The Chinese came in contact with the tribes in this region first because of military skirmishes. During the early Qin (280-221 BCE) and Han Dynasties (206BCE- 220 CE), the nomadic tribes descended upon the Chinese settlers and challenged the empire. To the Chinese all non- Chinese nomads were “barbarians” and the Chinese could hardly distinguish one barbarian from another. Occasionally, the Chinese mentioned differences in their physical appearances, customs and in rare cases differences in dialects.  But overall, the Chinese were most familiars with tribes that settled along the Silk Road that ended at Dunhuang or as the Chinese called if Yumen- Jade gate.  China rarely ventured beyond Dunhuang, except on punitive campaigns. One of those campaigns was set in motion in 104 BCE when a relatively minor Chinese Deputy Commander Li Guangli reached the outskirts of Ferghana.

Li Guangli established the local government of the Han Dynasty at Wulei, not far from Kucha (the Biblical Kueh/Kve in I Kings 10:28) [1] (Northern Afghanistan today) to `protect' the states in this area, which numbered about 50 at the time. At about the same period the city of Gaochang was built in the Turfan basin. This developed into the centre of the Huihe kingdom; these peoples later became the Uygur minority who now make up a large proportion of the local population. Many settlements were set up along the way, mostly in the oasis areas, and profited from the passing trade. They also absorbed a lot of the local customs, and adopted cultures from travelers that passed along the route.

Very few merchants traveled the full length of the [Silk] Road; most of them simply covered part of the journey, selling their wares not far from their homes, and then returned with the proceeds. Goods therefore tended to move slowly across Asia, changing hands many times. Local people no doubt acted as guides for the caravans over the most dangerous sections of the journey.

After the Western Han Dynasty, successive dynasties brought more states under Chinese control. Settlements came and went, as they changed hands or lost importance due to a change in the [trade] routes. The Chinese garrison town of Loulan, for example, on the edge of the Lop Nor Lake, was important in the third century A.D., but was abandoned when the Chinese lost control of the route. Many settlements were buried in the sands of the Taklimakan Desert; they were abandoned and could not be repopulated.

---

[1] For a connection between Kucha and the Biblical Kue/Kve, see my article:  Biblical Influence in Chinese Literature, Asian Jewish Life # 11 (2012)

Legalism in China

In ancient China, the legalists were pragmatic people for whom the rule of law was above everything else. They were called  “men of method” (fangshu zhishi) and they made the laws that subjected individual rights to the needs of the country. The ruler, namely the emperor made the laws, therefore the needs of the country were in essence the needs of the ruler. Practically what was good for the ruler was good for the country but what was good for the country was not necessarily good for the rulers. Therefore the laws were fixed and ordinary people were not permitted to question or even interpret the rules. To facilitate the spread of the laws, they were written in simple terms that everyone could understand.  No need for further explanation. It followed that the legalists were against reading any outside literature. Books like the Liji (equal to the Bible) were burned, public debates forbidden, and questioning the laws were severely punishable. The rules were so strict that they often bordered on the absurd.

“A man in the state of Zheng wanted to buy a pair of shoes. He carefully measured his foot with a ruler then placed the ruler on the chair. Next day he went to the market, and picked up a pair of shoes. Suddenly he remembered that he forgot to bring the ruler. He hurriedly returned home, got the ruler, and returned to the market. But by the time he got back, the market was closed. He did not get the shoes. Afterwards when people asked him “why did you not try the shoes on your feet?” he replied ‘I rather trust the ruler than my feet.’”  (Han Feizi)

While it is true that the legalist school of thought unified the country politically, economically and culturally, yet socially they alienated the people.  Politically they introduced the way of governing, headed by a strong ruler with unlimited and often unchecked powers. Economically, they standardized the units of measurements; introduced market oriented enterprises and demanded that each person should work for a living. That was a novel idea for the times. A farmer was a farmer, an artisan an artisan and a merchant a merchant, a scholar a scholar… Only people with education worked with their mind, others with their labor. Culturally, the writing system was standardized while artifacts and books were outlawed. Books of Confucius and the classic Liji were burned. Only books of “law” were allowed. Freedom of speech and expression, learning and freethinking were severely curtailed.

Socially, the legalist enforced a strict division of labor for those who worked with their mind ruled and those who labored. Each knew their places in society. Each followed an unwritten code of conduct. Even the emperor was advised to follow the legalist path. “A wise king never changes the law for his relatives, old acquaintances or the nobles.” Rulers, gentlemen and officials followed the li, or prescribed ceremonies, while the commoners followed the xing, the avocation of their title (like, farmer, artisan, merchant). The uneducated class was there to serve those who followed the li. “The li does not go down to the common people and the xing common people do not go up the social ladder. “

Only once in her long history, China practiced a government based on this strict legal philosophy. Between 280- 221 BCE the legalist ruled China, they united the country with the edge of the sword, but they lost the support of the people. That loss was permanent. Ever since 221 BCE China had rejected the legalism rule never to reinstitute a legal code that superseded the local customs. People found the laws so repulsive and regressive that they were turned off by legalism. Western style laws with loopholes and interpretations did not get a foothold in China. Even in modern times under the Chinese Communist regime, the fundamental of the Chinese constitution is deeply rooted in the legalist philosophy of Lord Shang Yang (d. 338 BE) and Hanfeizi (d.233 BCE) such as curtailing individual freedom of speech and expression, restricted social mobility and rejecting anything that would seem to threaten the ruling class.

The Chinese legalists used rewards and punishment to control the people and instill fear into transgressors.  They were not interested in the finer points of the law. Their goal was that every person should understand that good deeds were rewarded while bad deeds were punished. Rewards and punishment were the cornerstone to the Chinese legal philosophy and nowadays the basis of modern legal procedures. The legalists claimed that for centuries the Confucians taught that the golden age of man lied in the past. The present and future in China were always measured against past occurrences. But today circumstances were different, time had changed and so must the methods of the ruler, otherwise he would be like the farmer waiting for another hare at the stump in the middle of the field:  

“There was once a man in the state of Song who tilled his field. In the midst of the field there was a tree stump.  One day while plowing the field a hare run straight into the tree stump, broke his neck, and died. From that day on, the farmer quit tilling his field, and instead he sat by the tree stump in the hope that he would catch more hares.  But no hares came and the farmer became the laughing stock of the people of Song.“  (Han Feizi)
These ancient Chinese legalist concepts constitute the framework for the modern Chinese constitution and legal proceedings. 

Tiberiu Weisz

Lost in Translation - 1512 Stela

 The 1512 Kaifeng Stone Inscriptions- Explained

Little understood and long time ignored was the 1512 inscriptions of the Kaifeng Jews.

Why was it misunderstood? At the outset, Bishop White translated the stela out of historical context looking for traces of Christianity in the text.  Failing that, he translated the text as is, without checking for Chinese historical context.   Compounding this ignorance, was the “Survival of the Chinese Jews” a comprehensive work of Donald Leslie an Australian scholar who commented: “it is not clear why it was written.”  Chinese scholars were of no help either. They did not have to translate the text but they did not necessarily understanding its content.

So why was this inscription so hard to decipher? The simple answer is that this particular text must be read in a historical context of an Israelite with faint memory of some Jewish prayers and at the same time a neo Confucian scholar.

What is Neo Confucianism and how does this text differ from a regular Confucian text?

The Neo Confucian movement started in the late 8^th Century CE  as a protest against the penetration of Buddhism into China and influenced China until the late 19^th century CE.  During the Tang Dynasty (618-960) Buddhism swept over China like a sandstorm and many Chinese followed the path of Buddhism along the rites of Confucianism. Gradually, Buddhism became more dominant and the rituals of Confucianism became weakened. Confucianism was on the verge of extinction.  

To counteract the simple messages of Buddhism, the neo Confucians used li rational thinking to lure back the Chinese masses. Li was the Neo Confucians word for “rational thinking” or, to explain the Chinese Classics by the way of reasoning.  The difference between the Confucius and the Neo Confucians was the that former rarely if ever explained the reasons behind ceremonies and rites; it fell on Neo Confucians to use reasoning and logic to explain the Classics. They reasoned that once they expunged the Buddhist influence from the Confucian principles, the Confucian Way was far superior to the mindless Buddhism practices.  It was just a matter of explaining the Confucian way in a reasonable manner.

That was how Zuo Tang, the author of the 1512 inscriptions treated this inscription.  He reasoned that the success of the Israelites in the ancient city of Kaifeng was attributed to their steadfast religious beliefs that were compatible with Dao of the neo- Confucians.  According to him the word Dao carried similar connotation for the Israelite as that for the Neo Confucians. The former referred to Elohim while the latter to the Mind of the Neo Confucian:

“What is Dao, [it] is Mind. The people try to find Dao everywhere;

But to seek elsewhere is to seek outside; Why not seek it where it is, in your Mind” .

Thus wrote Yang Qian (1141-1227) one of the most important thinkers of the Lu School of Neo-Confucian thought. Apparently, Zuo Tang was impressed by the poems of Yang Qian and if we juxtapose this poem with the 1512 inscriptions we can see the similarities in composition and style:

“It is often said that the scriptures are full with Dao. But how about the followers of Dao?  They use it everyday. People in antiquity and today gathered together to follow its principles (li).”  (1512 Inscriptions)

 In addition, Zuo Tang showed that the Israelites adapted to life in China at the time without sacrificing their religious beliefs.  Large segments of the 1512 inscriptions depicted the daily life of the Israelites in Kaifeng as if it were an unfolding Chinese scroll. He also showed that the Chinese Way and Judaism had many similarities and neither Judaism nor the Chinese would have survived without their respective Dao.  Such a claim should have been quite revealing, since not many Chinese had enough knowledge of Judaism to realize that Judaism would not exist without the Torah.

Furthermore, Zuo Tang had skillfully weaved fragmentary parts of Biblical prayers that he might have still remembered with the Chinese classics in such a way as they became almost indistinguishable. For the Jews : “The Dao [Elohim] without the scriptures cannot exist, the Scriptures without Dao cannot be implemented, makes it a non-Scripture.” For the Chinese:“ [if] Dao [mind] is without fulfillment, people will be reckless will not know what to do, they will suddenly talk non-sense.”  

The 1512 inscription indicated that Zuo Tang was a follower, perhaps a disciple of the Lu School of neo Confucianism, yet he did not abandon his Jewish roots. He inscribed in stone some of the Jewish prayer that he remembered for future generations.  As far as his Chinese background, he seemed to be associated more with the Southern Song Dynasty (1126-1279) as the Lu School of neo Confucianism was more prevalent in Zhejiang Province. Unfortunately, this little fact went unnoticed by Westerners and lead to minimizing the importance of the 1512 inscription.  But it did not go unnoticed by Chinese scholars. They claim that details provided by Zuo Tang matched some of their finding about Jewish personalities and their occupation in ancient Kaifeng.  

(For a full translation and annotation of the inscription see: The Kaifeng Stone Inscriptions: the Legacy of the Jewish Community in Ancient China.) Available on Amazon.

Hatsofe: Chabad in China

Rabbi Greenberg to Hazofe:

This Is How the Chabad Was Set Up in China.

http://www.shturem.net/index.php?section=news&id=31227

(Hazofe Oct/Nov 2009)

Translated from Hebrew

 by Tiberiu Weisz

[Hazofe]Seven years had passed since Rabbi Greenberg and his team opened a Chabad House in the capital of China, and they are still active there. They are needed in every place.  The Jewish community in China is waking up. Businessmen who have settled down look for a Jewish corner, and take active part in the community life. It looks that nice things happen nowadays to the Jews in China.

[Interview with the Hazofe correspondent]

“We arrived to Shanghai and started the preparations for the opening of the Chabad house”.  Not any different from other places here.  We also publicized our presence to the Jewish business people and also established contact with the Israeli Consulate.  One evening, almost as a surprise, several Chinese came to the new house and identified themselves as senior officers of the Chinese security forces. “You have two possibilities” they said in a threatening way to our face “you either leave the country within 24 hours or you will be put before a Chinese court.”  On what charges?, we ask dumb folded . “You will be charged with disturbing the public order and with missionary work”, they said.

Rabbi Shalom Greenberg, Chabad representative in China reminiscences on the first days of the local Chabad   house and smilingly: “Those days the Chinese did not know what is Judaism and they thought that we want to convert them. Today they understand that it is not like that”.

Initially, as beginnings go, it was not easy. After the government people threatened Rabbi Greenberg, one of the Chasids said that they [Chabad] had no intention to leave and they are ready to stand trial. “They [the Chinese] were sure that we will pack up and leave”, he said.  They asked me if I knew what a trial was in China and if I understood the severity of the charges. I was not impressed, and told them that this trial would turn into an international media event. The first Jewish Rabbi in 50 years to come to China since WWII and he was arrested and stood for trial”.

The answer made the Chinese see a determined person in front of them who might cause them troubles. They probably went to consult their superiors in the Party, and after a while they came back and said that from their point of view, I do not exist as long as no Chinese was involved; and that we were not to build an official synagogue; and not to operate from an official site, only from a private lodging. They added that “any Chinese who shall be in contact with us will have serious problems.”

What brought you to China?

“The opening up to the West and the rapid economic development. Today there are not only businessmen but also Jewish families and students who come to study and there are also Jews who married to Chinese, they are Chinese citizens.”

What are the Chinese afraid of? Why did they limit your involvements?

“The government wants industrial peace and they are not ready to allow other ideas to endanger this quintessence. I will give you an example of  the Chinese legal system. In the Western legal system in general, and in Judaism in particular, the search for the truth is the height of the legal system. ‘What really happened’ – they call witnesses, investigate and bring evidence.  In China it is not relevant of what really happened. When a dispute between two sides arises about property or finance, the judges will automatically lean towards the stronger side and rule in that favor. Lack of justice?  Perhaps.  The Chinese do not seek justice, they look for industrial peace, and in their eyes that is justice. This peace is the religion of the Chinese government.  I remember, once I told the people living here that they did not discover anything new, and I was talking about the ancient world, even in Sodom and Gemora the judges ruled in the favor of the powerful. My words fell on deaf ears.”

So you claim that the Chinese are not attuned to the same morals, as we understand them?

“The term ethics/morals as we use them has no meaning in China. And not just ethics, but also their attitude to religion shows the big cultural gap. We are talking about a huge empire, 1.25 billion people and 80% have no religious affiliations while the 20% who have some beliefs only because of language and [social] pressure.”  

This characterizes the Communist regimes

“They are not necessarily connected. Beijing recognizes five religions that are legitimate in [the Chinese] eyes one of them is Buddhism. But none of these religions have significant followers. One of the strictest prohibitions in Buddhism, for example, is forbidden to take the life of a live animal, even killing a fly.  This restriction is enforced in India, so you will find many restaurants where Jews can eat because they are vegetarian. In China there are millions of Buddhists, but there are no vegetarian restaurants.  When I asked Chinese Buddhists how can they explain this, the answer was elusive, or they said that ‘only the extreme fanatics do not eat meat.’”

Another example. It does not bother a Chinese family that the father is Christian, the mother is Buddhist and the children are pagans. This does not create conflict. I have met such families. When you ask them how do they get along, they do not understand you. From their point of view, faith is like being soccer fan, one is a fan of one tem the other of another team, and they live peacefully. In China faith does not harm and it does not oblige.  The only thing that people adhere here is to Confucianism- but that is not religion, it is a way of life.”

There are never to blame.

The Chinese Jews have to cope with difficult problems that derive from the fact that they are Jews. The laws of Kashrut, for example. “Two weeks before Rosh Hashana [Jewish New Year] we tried to bring in a shipment of kosher meat to the port of Shanghai.  The intent was to host the Jewish people in the city for the holidays as is the custom of  the Chabad in the world.  The shipment was delayed in the port. I turned to the authorities with the request to release the meat in time. After three days we got an answer telling that the shipment is ready to be picked up. Obviously I was glad and we sent out invitations to the guests. Then we went and opened the containers and our eyes saw black, the meat had spoiled.

It turned out that after the container was unloaded from the ship, no one though of putting it in the freezer. It was left on the wharf despite the fact that there were signs saying that it had to be refrigerated. This is one of the situations when you do not know whether to laugh or cry. My wife and I stood by the container and started to laugh. Tears would not help, then at least we laughed, otherwise it is impossible to stay sane in China.”

Did you cancel the Rosh Hashana feast?

“Obviously not. The Hong Kong rabbi came to our rescue and we also moved our Jewish hinds. Thanks God, that Rosh Hashana we hosted seventy people.”

After the holidays, Rabbi Greenberg wanted to clarify as to who was responsible for the misunderstanding and he revealed again the Chinese culture is completely different from any Western cultures that he knows. “ The harbor manager admitted to me that whatever happened was not right, but when I asked who was to be blamed, it turned out that nobody was to blame. Everybody agreed that we were right, but they also said that what happened has nothing to do with them. We were stuck with a lot of excuses and nobody at fault. First I thought that is because I was new and in a few years I would understand what happened here. And here we are ten years later in 2008 and I still do not understand the Chinese dynamics. Between us, I gave up hope to understand.

There is anti-Semitic material even in China

Shalom Greenberg and his wife started their Shanghai adventure one year after they he got married. He is an Israeli citizen while his wife is an American. They have four children, two sons and two daughters, the oldest son is nine and the youngest daughter is three. This is how it works in Chabad: you get married and then they send you on a mission. Yet, they had prepared and taught us about China, and we thought that we know quite a lot about China. Only after we arrived we realized that if one does not know China from inside, one cannot know how different is from the Israeli or American views.

Why is there a need for a Jewish community in China?

“There is a large community here that needs a lot of services, and we are supplying them. The community has increased in the last few years and I brought my brother here to help me. He opened another Chabad house in another part of the city.  

How do you explain this success?

The Chinese appreciate teachers because in their eyes they teach to be successful in life and I am here as a teacher. The Chinese also appreciate the Jews because they are convinced that our people control the world finances, and they like money and its influence.  Therefore, every Israeli businessman is appreciated here, even more appreciated are Israeli teachers. When I presented myself, the first reaction from the Chinese was great respect. I was supposed to be some sort of monetary guru. And then they found out that I do not teach how to make money, instead I teach spirituality, and that confused them. They do not have respect for spirituality. At this stage most would leave me alone, only a small minority understood that there was something more important than money.”

In a world that that is antagonist against the Jews in general and against the Israelis in particular, China is sort of oasis.  When I [the Hazofe writer] asked Shalom Greenberg what was the reaction of the Chinese to Western stereotypes to the likes the Elders of Zion, he said: “China also has translated anti-Semitic literature that portrayed the Jews as dangerous to the world, but instead of causing them to hate the Jews, it caused them to admire us. The say ‘if you have so much success to influence the world, it is a sign that you have some knowledge that is worth learning.’ This is the way of life in China, this is how they see the world. There are Chinese who want to study Judaism and some want to convert, but we direct them  Hong Kong or Australia. It is forbidden to talk to these people in Shanghai and obviously it is forbidden to convert them.”

Despite all the fascination with the Jews, Judaism is not one of the recognized religions in Beijing. The Chabad turned to the local Chinese authorities about six years ago to recognize Judaism as a religion with the assurance that we have no intention of converting any Chinese. “ We also promised to obey all the limitation imposed by them. The officials listened to the request and they were very polite. They said that they do not doubt that Judaism is an important religion and it is worth being recognized.  We heard this answer for six years. At the time I became to understand that despite the politeness there is no intention of recognizing the religion of Israel, perhaps because of political considerations. Officials will not admit this, they will continue to smile and will do nothing”

What kind of political considerations?

“The Chinese government looks at request for religious recognition globally.  If they  allow Judaism to operate in China, then other religions, including Islam and Christianity, will claim religious discrimination,. After all, every one wants to work with 400 million Chinese. So it is better not to even address this problem, and they just ignore us. They are quite polite about this but we know that for all practical purposes, nothing will change. Every one who comes to China must know that the government is very protective of its order and they do not want new ideas to capture the imagination of the Chinese people.”

China is coming closer to the West.

As a result of the increasing number of Jews and Israelis in China in the last few years, Rabbi Greenberg had to intervene for those who got in trouble with local authorities. “People come here, they do not understand China and make stupid mistakes” he said sadly.  “In order to help a stupid you need a good lawyer and provide him with a lot of money to bribe the right people. Even then one needs to know who is hurt and who is behind the complaint. Once, I was accompanied by the Deputy Foreign Minister, a person with high status, to save an Israeli. Lately, I have been in contact with local officials who know me. Sometimes they can solve the problem before it gets out of hand. I advise those who come to China to accept the differences between China and the West and be aware of the sensitivity of the authorities, and simply do not make stupid mistakes”.

But it is said that China is coming closer to the West?

“That is true. Ten years ago, when I arrived to Shanghai, people used to do their things in the street, and I am taking about a city that in the past was under the control of the West and a history with foreigners. A lot had changed since then, and vey fast.  Today heavy fine are imposed on indecent behavior in the streets.  There is more enforcement of the traffic laws, something that in the past was just a suggestion. There are other indicators that show that China is adopting more Western standards.  But all is relative. There are still many strange things for a Westerner who live here, and are not just touring. “

What is the most difficult for you?

“Loneliness.  You feel like you are in a different planet. This feeling causes young Jews and Israelis who are walking here to come to us for some homeliness. A foreigner in China does not have contact with local Chinese and even if they did, they would not understand anything. This is an exciting phenomenon that is at the expense of privacy. Young people start to look anew into their Jewish identity and they get to us. By the way, despite the estrangement that is characteristic to the locals, we encourage Israelis to take part in humanitarian activities. For example when there was an earthquake in Sichuan, the Chabad encouraged people to go and help the victims. “

Do you expect that China will become the next place of Jewish -Israeli immigration?

“Despite the fact that Jews are attracted to places with opportunities, the huge hiatus between the two cultures will prevent mass settlement in China. In addition, the government is not interested in such a move and it limits the foreigners to several isolated cities. But gradually the dripping of migrating Jews will turn into a stream and the Jews will migrate to the east, this time to the Far East.”

A Chinese View: Jewish identity

Jewish Identity in China: A Chinese View

By

An Tifa

Translated from Chinese

By

Tiberiu Weisz

Translator Note

 The original title of this article: “A Group of Jewish Descendents from Kaifeng Want to Immigrate to Israel, but Their Identity is in Doubt” was published in 21st Century World in Chinese and on the internet at: http://www.sina.com.cn/c/2002-08-06.

As the Chinese title indicates, this article is written for Chinese audiences, and the text follows Chinese reporting practices that differ considerably from reporting style in the West. To make the article more reader friendly for Western readers, the translator made some structural changes, eliminated many repetitions, duplications and redundancies, while remaining true to the original article. Background information on the story of Chinese Jews may be found in the endnotes and suggested readings.

Among a group of people studying Hebrew at the Foreign Language Institute at Nanjing University was Zhang Xingwang[i] a teacher from Kaifeng with a small black cap called a kipa covering his head. Zhang said that he does not have a great knowledge of the Jewish tradition, but he wears the kipa in search of spiritual sustenance. Because of this search, he is very attentive when he follows the instruction of the Hebrew teachers.

At the invitation of Professor Xuxin, Director of The Jewish Cultural Studies Department at Nanjing University, Chinese students, historians, teachers, scholars and other interested parties came from all over China to attend a summer program of Israel cultural studies. He also invited several descendents of the Jews from Kaifeng and a Jewish professor and his wife to teach Hebrew and Jewish culture.

Zhang Xingwang introduced straightforwardly the long history of the Jews in Kaifeng. “One thousands years ago”, he said, “[Jewish] ancestors came on the Silk Route from Israel to Kaifeng, capital of the Song Dynasty (960-1279). After the court received them the emperor said; ‘[You] returned to my China. Honor and observe the custom of your ancestors. Bianliang was abandoned.’[ii] These Jews decided to settle down. At the beginning, there were 17 families[iii] but only 7 exist today: Shi, Gao, Ai, Li, Zhang, Zhao and Jin. All these names were transliterations from Hebrew with the exception of Zhao, whose name was bestowed by the emperor. Thus, Li sounded like Levi while Shi [Stone] and Jin [Gold] were translations. ” [iv] According to Zhang Xingwang there were 618 descendents of the Kaifeng Jews, some of them had left, scattered in Uruguchi, Lanzhou[v], Xian, Chengdu, Shanghai, Nanjing, Shenzhen and other cities.

In the past, these Jews marked “Jews” as their nationality in the census. In 1952, two Jewish delegates from Kaifeng went to Beijing to represent the community at the celebration of the National Day [vi] and were received by the leadership of the Central Committee. A few years ago at the time of the census most of the people changed [nationality] to “Muslim” or “Han”.[vii] Zhang Xingwang was obviously not pleased. He said [that the Jews] were obviously not Muslims or Han Chinese, so why ask them to change their nationality? It is unreasonable that they cannot get such recognition.

Zhang Xingwang also maintains that the descendents of the Kaifeng Jews had forgotten the Jewish culture. The original Kaifeng descendents had congregated near the teaching alley (hutong) but after 1958, they moved out. Only the Zhao family remained there. Looking at this from a daily life perspective, they were no longer observing the Jewish tradition. This year is the first time that [the Jews] have celebrated Passover. Although most of the [Jews] are still in the habit of not eating pork, there is no Jewish person who is true to the image of “the sect that extracts the sinew”[viii] of the sheep.  They forgot the traditional customs and therefore came here [to Nanjing] to study Hebrew hoping to return and search for their historical Jewish memories.

[Meanwhile, in the class] these Jewish descendents repeated after the teacher a Hebrew prayer:”In front of the Lord we sing a new song—Hallelujah!” Everybody made great effort to have the correct pronunciation as each one hoped to annunciate every single word of the hard-to-study Hebrew sentence.

With illegal emigration – the family stretches the boundaries.

When the reporter asked Zhang Xingwang about the family who had already immigrated to Israel, he responded without hesitation: “They are different from us, we are patriots”. He also admitted that there were Kaifeng Jews who ran away illegally but this was a matter of purely individual behavior. He also said that just because this family name was Jin, it does not mean that we study Hebrew for the pleasure of the Jin family. “First we are Chinese, but because we have Jewish bloodlines, we are Chinese with Jewish characteristics. We teach this to our children, that first of all of we love our country.”

Outsiders need to understand that this is a sensitive issue. Zhang Xingwang, illustrated this point: “We were the little birds in the forest, without worries and concerns. Later as the cats [hunters] became numerous, we saw the guns’ fowling pieces and ran. Now, many people are looking for us both from China and abroad.” He repeatedly stated that the majority of the Kaifeng Jewish descendents are patriots.

According to Zhang Qianhong[ix], the head of the Institute of Jewish Studies at Henan University, in addition to the Jin’s [who already emigrated] there were the Zhang’s and the Li’s who had wanted to immigrate to Israel in the 1990s. However, only the three members of the Jin family were successful; they moved to Finland and their uncle Jin Guanzhong remained in Kaifeng.

Zhang Xingwang expressed his disappointment that the Kaifeng descendents cannot immigrate to Israel legally: “We would like to go to see Jerusalem, too.” He explained that intermarriage between Jews [in Kaifeng] and Han Chinese was quite common. The descendents of the Kaifeng Jews followed the patrilineal descent in China, and therefore could not immigrate because in Israel the matrilineal descent is followed. “Had the Kaifeng community followed the matrilineal descent, then they would have not encountered any problems. The Jewish community in Spain had a 300 year-old history; they also celebrated Passover, but were not even aware that they were Jews. Only after scholars realized that they were of matrilineal descent, they could immigrate. Jewish blood cannot be forgotten.”[x] 

Zhang Xingwang explained the value of the Jewish presence in China: “The Kaifeng Jewish community has an impact on the world. They often receive Jews from foreign countries and from Israel. The Israelis consider the Jews of Kaifeng especially important, because it serves a testimony to the friendship between China and Israel. We are saying that the Chinese people are good toward the Jews; they do not discriminate against the Jews. Living circumstances in Kaifeng are favorable, and the Jews can survive and flourish for another thousand years.” In conclusion, he said, “it is not important whether or not the government recognizes us as Jews, nor is it important that the census cannot be changed, what is important is that we feel that we are Jews in our hearts. Neither this nor the next generation will forget that we are Jews.” 

But the young generation of Jews has a different view of their Jewish identity

At the Hebrew school [in Nanjing] was another female student, majoring in International Relations at the Elousi Mosque.[xi]  Her name is Shi Han, a second year student who used the summer vacation to go to Nanjing University to study Jewish culture. Although her [maternal] grandfather was a representative of the Jewish descendents at the Beijing [festivities] in 1952,[xii] she has no deep historical affiliation to Judaism and her interest in this class is mostly curiosity.  “I rarely mention that I am Jewish; only when classmates come over to my house and ask about the few books and the pictures in the house, I tell them that I am a descendent of Jews.” When the government allowed [the Jews] to test for their DNA in the 1980s, the proof came back that she had the same DNA traces as an Iraqi Jew. She has no understanding of Judaism and even less of the Bible. But when she was asked about the Palestinian-Israeli conflict, she said: “Of course we are on the side of Israel.”

The Jin family obviously went one-step further [in their quest] of their ancestors’ tradition. According to reports, when Jin Xiaojin, who worked at the Institute for Minority Research, found out in the 1980s that he was of Jewish descent, he sent his daughter Qu Yian, who at the time was a reporter in Beijing, to Los Angeles to study Judaism.

The Latest Jewish Records

Kaifeng is an old city; its economy naturally cannot be compared to the coastal area. Song Nushi, who works for the city Migration Assistance Bureau said that, because of the high unemployment rate, many people considered going to work abroad, and last year a number of people asked about Israel.

Zhang Xingwang directed the reporter to the Teaching Alley (jiao hutong). That place is marked on the map as the” remnants of the Jewish Synagogue” but the original synagogue site has been replaced by the Peoples’ Number Four Hospital and the only historical marker is an ancient well in the hospital boiler room.

Cui Shuping, a widower of a Jewish descendent, lives on the southern side of the Teaching Alley.  She is a Han Chinese but her late husband Zhao Pingyu was of Jewish descent.  Everyday she sees local and foreign visitors. On the table in the house, there is a candleholder, and a “Great Six Star” (Magen David) paper cut window decoration that her daughter had cut out and put in the framed mirror. She told the reporter that the paper cut is both a decoration and a reminder. On the sides of the door are hung two traditional Chinese scrolls designated for peace. Apart for these reminders, her house is no different from that of her neighbors.

On the fourth floor of the Kaifeng Museum is the Jewish department, and to gain admission one needs to apply in advance.  Fortunately, the gatekeeper was there and asked the guide to take the reporter to the fourth floor, on condition that she take no pictures nor make any recording. On display in the museum is an extremely important memorial engraving, the original stone stele of “The Record of the Rebuilding of the Pure and Truth Temple” and “The Record in Honor of the Daojing Temple”[xiii]. The floor was very dark and very humid and the mood was somber. Due to the declining number of visitors, Zeng Guangqing, the head of the department, told the 21-Century World reporter that the Kaifeng Jews were a historical phenomenon and that there is no Jewish minority among the 56 national minorities in China. But of course the reporter does knows this. 

The local Kaifeng Jewish descendents, however, welcomed the publicity. Li Suisheng’s wife bought a watermelon to serve the reporter while she showed her two sets of original census documents as proof of their nationality.  The nationality of Li Suisheng was clearly marked “Jew” in the old the Red Book[xiv].  The new census is handwritten and has the word “Jew” for Li Suisheng and his daughter, but a closer look at the census record of Li Suisheng shows that there is a trace of change. His wife explained that the census official wrote it wrong and he immediately corrected it.

Officially, neither country recognizes them as Jews

The reporter followed up with the census registration office. The People’s Police pulled up the record of Li Suisheng on the computer and the reporter could see on the screen that the nationality of the three members of the Li clan is Han Chinese. The deputy director explained that most of the new census is computerized but the transfer [to computerized system] occurred while the census was taken. At the time, the software was not secure and therefore Li Suisheng’s registry was handwritten. But he added that the computerized system has only two nationalities Han or Muslims. China has 56 nationalities and Jews are not among them.

Not only that the local government did not recognize them as Jews, but when the reporter went to the Office of Migration of the Foreign Ministry [in Beijing] inquiring about the application of the Jin family to Israel, an official at the Public Documentation Office admitted that in 1996 the local government made an error issuing those certificates. At the time, the Public Notary Office issued individual IDs that did not constitute legal recognition of the Jews.[xv] Later the Public Notary Office revoked the Jewish certificates and since then IDs with Jew on them were illegal. According to the official, China has only 56 minorities, and the Jewish minority in not among them.

[The reporter went] to the Israeli Consulate in Beijing located on the 4^th floor of the West Trade Center building

The response from the Israeli Consulate was the same. The Public Relations Officer told 21st Century World  that the Israeli Consulate recognizes only the legal procedure of the Foreign Ministry and does not regard the Jewish certificates as legal. He also said that the Consulate had not issued immigration certificates to any Jewish descendents.

Though neither country admits officially that they are Jews, a few organizations assist the Kaifeng descendents to return to their traditional culture. Chou Cailian, a Chinese Canadian, helped many Chinese minority poor children with education. Since he [Chou] suspects that his great-grandmother was of Jewish descent, he had helped several Jewish descendents of Kaifeng. He financed the education of fourteen Kaifeng Jewish descendents among them was Lijing, Li Suisheng’s daughter, who just recently had received a scholarship. In March of this year, Chou Cailian invited the families of the descendents to a restaurant to celebrate Passover. At the same time, other organizations also assist the Kaifeng Jewish descendents to immigrate to Israel. The Jin family only recently immigrated to Israel with the help of such an organization. 

   

The Jewish teacher at the Israel Cultural Training Center of Nanjing University offered some private thoughts to the hopeful few who want to immigrate to Israel: “If one wants to become a Jew, of course you can become Jew. But, this is a very long and slow process. Besides, I want them to think about three things: Is it worth becoming a Jew? Jews have many enemies, a long and sad history of bitterness and strict laws…. But no matter what we say, if they want, we welcome them with open arms.

Are the Kaifeng Jewish descendents Jews?

.

To clarify this question, the reporter interviewed Professor Xuxin from the Nanjing Jewish Cultural Center.

21st Century World: The Jews of Kaifeng are a historical incident. But, from an Israeli standpoint, after some descendent of the Jews of Kaifeng immigrated to Israel it suddenly became reality. Could you put the issue of the Kaifeng Jews in simple terms for us?

Xuxin: The issue of the Kaifeng Jews as was talked about in China in the past actually referred to the remnant of the historical Kaifeng Jews. Some maintain that the Jews settled in Kaifeng in the Northern Song Dynasty [1162 CE] and some of them formed a community conforming to the Jewish customs. At the end of the 19^th century, Chinese scholars started to pay attention to the question of Kaifeng Jews, and in the 1920s, they documented their historical existence.

In the beginning of the 17^th century, the story of the Kaifeng Jews was extensively reported in the West. It attracted the attention of the intelligentsia in Europe creating controversy and debates. During the reign of Yong Zheng [1723- 1735] of the Qing Dynasty [1644- 1911], China expelled foreign religions from China, and the outside world lost its connection with the Kaifeng Jews. After the Opium War in 1850, two Chinese missionaries from Shanghai were sent to Kaifeng and they wrote a report that was widely publicized in the West. According to that report, there was no longer a rabbi in Kaifeng and they estimated that [the community had been without a rabbi] or a successor since the beginning of the 19^th century. Thus, they [Jews] ceased to observe the traditional customs because the role of the rabbi was very important in Judaism.

The Kaifeng Temple had been in disrepair for a long time, and it was evident that the Jews stopped going to the synagogue. Since the synagogue belonged to the descendents of the Kaifeng Jews, the descendents sold the building in 1914. This attracted the attention of the Shanghai Jews.[xvi] Jews have a tradition of helping each other, and when they learned that the Kaifeng descendents sold the Torah scrolls, they were very sad. They established an “Association for the Aid of the Kaifeng Jews” and wrote letters to the world Jewish communities calling for saving the descendents of the Kaifeng Jews. But the outbreak of World War II shelved the issue; they [the Jews] faced other disasters in the world. At the time there were several Kaifeng Jews who went to Shanghai and were well received by the Shanghai Jewish community, they also underwent circumcision, but afterward there were no more attempts to restore the tradition.

21st Century World: The descendents of the Kaifeng Jews called themselves Jews in the past, what is your view about this question?

Xuxin: After the end of the 19^th century, there were no Jewish descendents in Kaifeng, but some people followed the tradition and called themselves Jews. The Kaifeng Jews followed the patrilineal tradition, that is, if the father was Jewish, the offspring were Jewish, too, and they used the father’s surname. In the 1920 census, during the Republican Period [1911-1949] a few Kaifeng descendents wrote “Jew” as their nationality affiliation. They did so out of conviction of historical loyalty and not due to political or economic aspirations. Even on the 1952 census [form], some Kaifeng Jewish descendents wrote “Jew” [as their nationality] even though there were not many [who observed] Jewish tradition at the time, but in that generation, people were permitted to determine their own religious affiliation. The census did not require any proof of ancestry or nationality; descendents knew the origin of their ancestors. This kind of “Jew” was actually [a Jew] in a cultural sense. Interestingly, the descendents of the Kaifeng Jews based their being Jews on the tradition, but other people claim that they are not [Jewish]. This is strange because no other minority, not the Han Chinese nor the Muslims are required to prove their [affiliation], so why are the Kaifeng Jews?

21st Century World: But according to the Law of Return, they are not Jews.

Xuxin: That is correct. I was talking about Jews in a cultural sense. Strictly speaking, I do not regard them as Jews, and that refers to the “Jewish descendents”, too.

 I think that it is ludicrous that they want to immigrate to Israel. According to the Law of Return, only if the mother is Jewish, or the individual is converted to Judaism, he or she is a Jew. Based on these standards, they are obviously not Jews, because the descendents of the Kaifeng Jews follow the father’s lineage. But this is a legal definition, and one cannot suppress these peoples’ traditional right to call themselves Jews. We should not forget that during biblical times the Jewish lineage was patrilineal and only after the exile [586 BCE], the standard changed to matrilineal.

When China examined its definition of national minorities, the status of the Jewish minority was also considered. In 1952, two delegates from Kaifeng represented the Jews in the National Minority Day Celebration. But in 1953 the Central Committee reaffirmed the article [of the basic laws] that maintained that there are only 56 minorities in China, and Jews were not among them, yet the [same article] also protected their rights to preserve their traditional customs.  

 

21st Century World: Now it appears that the Kaifeng Jewish descendents want to immigrate to Israel, how do you look at this?

Xuxin: In the 1990s, the Kaifeng descendents became interested in immigration. Among the Seven Surnames of the Kaifeng Jews, the Jin family went to Beijing and asked to immigrate. The Consulate of Israel, however, refused to consider their application because the Law of Return. Then they [the Jin’s] went to Israel from a third country (from Russia to Finland and to Israel). My understanding is that a Christian organization helped them. But, I doubt that they can become eligible to be Israelis according to the Law of Return unless they convert. Conversion is not easy. If one wants to convert, the Jews will be the first to tell you that becoming a Jew is not fun. If you insist on converting, you need to study, and be under close observation for [at least] a year. Most of the conversions occur because of marriage. Most Chinese do not understand Israel; they think that immigration is good. But, I tell them straightforwardly that immigration is a difficult affair.  I do not approve of immigration, they do not speak the language, they have no skills and life in Israel is very difficult.

Special correspondent An Tifa reports for Jerusalem.

Since 1986, many foreign and Chinese visitors have come to Kaifeng to interview L. (I use the name L. because the interviewee did not agree to use the real name), and the descendents of the Kaifeng Jews. After the establishment of relations between China and Israel in 1992, these kinds of interviews increased daily. And L.’s name started to appear in a few places both in China and abroad. An unexpected opportunity in 1999 changed the fate of L. At the beginning of that year, L. received assistance from an organization that in the 1920’s started to help overseas Jews to immigrate to Israel, and they expressed their willingness to assist L. to be the first Kaifeng Jew to immigrate to Israel.

Once the reporter met L. she asked: Why do you want to immigrate to Israel?

L. said, “Since I was little, I have known that I was Jewish. When I was little, my mother told me that one branch of [the family] is Chinese and one branch is Israelite. Reaching out to the other branch has been one of my dreams since childhood.”

After 1999, L. sought the path of immigration, but that path was not successful. It can be said that behind each emigration from China, there is a complicated story. But in the end they achieved their goal. By the year 2000, they obtained the various permits, spent four months in Finland, and went to live in Israel.

L. explained the process of immigrating to Israel as a Jews. “First, I needed to prove that I was a Jew. Though I wrote ‘Jew’ as my nationality in the 1996 census, officials told me that I had to write either Han or Muslim and could not continue to write ‘Jew’ as nationality because there was no such  name among the 56 names. Then I had to produce an official notarized letter. I went to the Foreign Ministry in Beijing where I was told that [such] a notarized letter needed to be approved by higher levels at the Ministry. After two weeks, I received the approval of the higher officials in the ministry, and in addition, it was also stamped by the Israeli Consulate.”  L. continued: “If one wants to maintain Jewish identity one needs also to obtain a notarized [letter] from one’s rabbi. But there are no rabbis in China. The few Jewish descendents ‘perhaps several thousand people altogether’ are widely scattered throughout China and very few of them are observant Jews.”

Once the identity is recognized, traveling becomes a question of expenses. According to the records, the aid society who helped them immigrate, had already taken into account the expenses and successfully provided them enough financing. Thus in the fall of 1999, L. [and wife] embarked for Finland, where they stayed for four months and in the end they arrived in Jerusalem.

They lived in Jerusalem for two years.

“Because of the sensitivity of the immigration issue, the government hoped that we would not come to Jerusalem directly from Beijing, therefore we adopted a two stage plan. First we went to Finland and then to Israel. Our expenses in Finland and in Jerusalem were covered by the aid society.  For two years after we left Kaifeng we had received about ten thousand US dollars in aid.”  They lived in Jerusalem for two years, and received a monthly stipend of US $ 600 (5000 Chinese yuan) that covered the rent. In addition, they received 6000-yuan ($700) a month for living expenses and medical insurance equal to the [standard of living of a] middle-income family. They were also provided with furniture and appliances. L. did not work. He spent half days, three times a week, at an ulpan, the rest of the time he had free time. He went for walks, watched TV, read books, surfed the internet and cooked. At least three times a week, he went to the synagogue and used Hebrew to read the prayers. L. said that once he felt he could communicate, he was able to look for a job. Gradually the aid society decreased the amount of aid and eventually stopped it altogether. No matter to what standards one compares L.’s living conditions, his two-room apartment is not considered small. On the snow white painted walls, hangs a Chinese scroll. Also displayed in the living room are seven or eight picture frames depicting the old Kaifeng synagogue and the scenery around it.

Observing Jewish rituals

During the interview the reporter asked L.,”To what extent did you observe the Jewish tradition in Kaifeng?

L. said, “In the old days, there was a saying that ‘seven surnames and eight families’[xvii] of Jews lived in Kaifeng.  These surnames were bestowed in antiquity by the emperor. Our surname was historic and our ancestors held a fourth grade official rank in the court. The household was rather prosperous. There were also rather many Jews in old Kaifeng who observed the tradition. We had our own family tree, which also was a proof that we were  Jewish. Before the Cultural Revolution [1966-1969], our family still kept the imperial tablet[xviii] but later we lent it to a display in Beijing. It was never returned to us, and we lost its trace. There are also stone inscriptions left in Kaifeng that had recorded the deeds of our ancestors.[xix]  The graves of our Jewish ancestors near Kaifeng are still are in good conditions. There are approximately 30 tombs. Buried among the bodies of nine generations is [the grave] of my elder brother who recently passed away.

On the door of our house, we had a special Jewish sign that we touched when we entered or left the house. It was a sign of ‘to go and come in peace’. Our family observed the Sabbath from Friday sunset until sunset on Saturday. That time we did no work. Our family had also read the Chinese version of the Jewish prayers.”

L.’s wife is not of Jewish descent but she said that [since her marriage] she had understood and respected [her husband’s] national identity and traditional customs. L. said, “During the ninety years of living in Kaifeng, our family had not eaten pork or shrimp and these customs had been preserved until today.” Before immigrating to Israel, L. ran a rather small factory and his wife used a room in the house to run a barbershop. L. has an elder sister and a younger brother who live near the community housing in Kaifeng. They also follow the same customs as the L. household.

The interview is nearing an end and the reporter asked L: “Do your sister and brother hope to immigrate to Israel? Why did they not come yet? “

L. said: “Of course, they would like to immigrate; they also sent in their application. But two main obstacles are in the way: One, there is no organization that is willing to give them the documentations that they are Jews.  Two, financing is also a problem. You know, immigrating requires a lot of money and the organization that helped and financed us is helping other people.” 

In conclusion, it must be added that L’s family are not the sole Chinese Jews living in Israel. 

During World War I, many Jews sought refugee in Shanghai and other places in China; some of them married to local Chinese. The children of these mixed marriages have Jewish blood. After the liberation, some of them went to Israel with their Jewish mother or father; others came to Israel after the opening of relations between the two countries, in search of their mother or father. In every town or city in Israel, one can find such examples.

About the author

An Tifa is special correspondent for the 21^st Century World, a Chinese periodical.

About the Translator

Tiberiu Weisz, Professor of Chinese and author of two books about China and the Jews: The Kaifeng Stone Inscriptions: The Legacy of the Jewish Community in Ancient China, iUniverse 2006, and The Covenant and the Mandate of Heaven: An In-depth Comparative Cultural Study of Judaism and China. iUniverse 2008..

Suggested Reading

Many books and articles have been written about the Jews in China, and below is a very short list that provides interested readers a wide range of views on this fascinating topic.

Goldstein, Jonathan. The Jews of China: A Sourcebook and Research Guide.  2 Volunes. M.E. Sharpe 2000. ( A comprehensive collection of scholarly articles).

Pollack, Michael. Mandarins, Jews and Missionaries: The Jewish Experience in the Chinese Empire. Jewish Publication Society, Philadelphia 1980. (A history of the Jewish presence in China for both laymen and scholars).

Xu Xin, The Jews of Kaifeng, China, History Culture and Religion.  Ktav Publishing House 2003. (A view from a Chinese scholar)

Pan Guang, The Jews in China. China Intercultural Press 2003. (Another view from a Chinese scholar)

Eber, Irene. Chinese Jews Encounters between Cultures. Valentine Mitchell Press 2008 (A view from an Israeli scholar. I believe that this book is also available in Hebrew).

Schwarcz, Vera, Bridge Across Broken Time: Chinese and Jewish Cultural Memory. Yale University Press, 1999. (Cross cultural observations of a Jewish student in China in the 1970’s)

Weisz, Tiberiu, The Kaifeng Stone Inscriptions: The Legacy of the Jewish Community in Ancient China. iUniverse 2006. (Full translation and annotation of the stone inscriptions and their meaning)

Weisz, Tiberiu, The Covenant and the Mandate of Heaven: An In-Depth Comparative Cultural Study of Judaism and China. iUniverse 2008.

   

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Notes:

[i] Zhang Xingwang, is the spokesman for the Jewish community in Kaifeng and also goes by the Hebrew name of Moshe. He is very outspoken about Judaism in China and, here, he expressed his views to a Chinese reporter.  He is a Physical Education teacher and a Wushu (martial arts) coach in a high school in Kaifeng. He is also member of the Chinese Communist Party and former city council member. I met him several times, but had never had a chance to talk with him. At one of the dinners, I sat next to his daughter, at the time a high school student, with whom I exchanged a few words. She was very surprised that I could talk in fluent Chinese, and once she realized that we could converse freely, she was very talkative. Unfortunately she was called away to give us a “demonstration of her knowledge of a Hebrew song.”

[ii] Zhang’s remarks referred to a sentence in the 1489 stone inscriptions that was believed to say that the Jews came to China in the Song Dynasty (960-1279) at the invitation of the emperor. It is evident that Zhang quoted Bishop White’s translation. Bishop White, a Chinese missionary who resided in China between 1897 and 1934 and brought the case of the Kaifeng Jews to our attention, translated this sentence to say that:” You have come to our China; Reverence and preserve the custom of your ancestors and hand them down at Pien-Liang (Kaifeng)” (Chinese Jews.). Donald Leslie, an Australian scholar, merely rephrased this: “Come to our China, honor and preserve the custom of your ancestors. Remain and hand them down in Pianliang” (The Survival of the Chinese Jews (T’ong Pao 1972, pg 23).  Xuxin, who is mentioned in this article, and is the author of The Jews of Kaifeng recreated the story of the Chinese Jews based on Bishop White’s  translation without  checking it for accuracy.

But, a closer look at the original Chinese text revealed that the English translation contained two critical errors.  First, Bishop White mistranslated the word “gui” which in Chinese means “return” (and not “come”) implying that the Jews were not new comers to China.  Second, he also mistranslated the word “liuyi” which in the 15^th century referred to the moving of the capital from one city to another and it meant “to abandon, to leave behind [the capital city].” Based on these distinctions, the first sentence was a direct speech by emperor, while the second sentence referred to the fleeing of the Song court in 1127. For a full translation and explanation of the original Chinese text see Tiberiu Weisz: The Kaifeng  Stone Inscriptions.

[iii] The 1489 inscription mentioned seventy families and that was not incidental.  It indicated that the Chinese Jews knew their roots and used it to identify themselves in a Jewish historical context: “all the offspring of Jacob were seventy person” ( Exodus 1:5).

[iv] Some researchers advanced the theory that these names were of Hebrew origin, but as I showed in The Kaifeng Stone Inscriptions, these names were bona fide Chinese surnames and not transliterations. 

[v] A very good Chinese friend of mine, who was assigned to a “working brigade” in Lanzhou (Xinjiang/Gansu Province) during the Cultural Revolution (1966-1969) and spent nineteen  years there, said  that he knew people of Jewish descends in Lanzhou.   

[vi] What he is referring was the celebration of the National Minority Day in 1952 when the Kaifeng Municipal Government and Bureau of Central South chose two Jewish descendants from Kaifeng, Ai Fenming and Shi Fenying to represent the Jewish minority at the national celebration. Both members became ardent communist and worked later for the government. According to Xuxin, the reason that these two Jews were chosen was “that the local government was aware of the existence of Jews in the city and wanted to ensure equal rights for any ethnic group living in their region. These two Jewish descendants were introduced as Jews while in Beijing and were well received during the celebration.” (For details see: Xu Xin: “Chinese Policy Towards Judaism.” Points East, vol. 19, No 1, March, 2004 pg. 3-4, and Gustavo D. Perednik : “The Chinese of Jewish Descent at Kaifeng.” Points East, vol. 23, No. 1, March 2008, pg. 4).

[vii] Han is the Chinese term for Chinese.

[viii] That is how the Jews were called in the 18^th century when the missionaries visited them. For details, see Pollack, Michael, Mandarin Jews and Missionaries.

[ix] I have met Qianhong on several occasions in China and we are currently collaborating on joint project.  

[x] This is Moshe Zhang’s interpretation of the Maranos in Spain.

[xi] I am not clear about the meaning of this sentence neither certain its exact location. Elousi is a Russian minority between the Uyigur Autonomous Region and Heilongjiang.

[xii] See above fn. 5

[xiii] This is the original stele of the 1489 and on the other side is the engraving of the 1512 inscriptions. For a full translation of the Chinese text, see The Kaifeng Stone Inscriptions.

[xiv] An official document.

[xv] For a more detailed explanation of these events, see Xuxin, “Chinese Policy Towards Judaism.” Points East, Vol. 19 No 1, March, 2004.

[xvi] There was a small but wealthy Jewish merchant community in Shanghai, e.g. The Sasoons, Kadoori, Hardouns ect. See Goldstein

[xvii] This is another name for the Jews in Kaifeng.

[xviii] This tablet was displayed at the entrance of the Kaifeng synagogue.

[xix] For a new annotated translation of these inscriptions in Jewish context, see The Kaifeng Stone Inscriptions, The Legacy of the Jewish Community in Ancient China.  iUniverse 2006.